What is the test for civil liability in the context of civil litigation?

MultiRegion, United States of America

The following excerpt is from Pasadena Research Laboratories v. United States, 169 F.2d 375 (9th Cir. 1948):

In United States v. Chemical Foundation, 272 U.S. 1, 14, 15, 47 S.Ct. 1, 6, 71 L.Ed. 131, the familiar rule as to the acts of public officers is thus stated:

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